Philosophe grec athénien classique
Platon (; PLAYING-tâgrec: Πλάτων Platon, prononcé (Plá.tɔːn) dans le loft classique; 428/427 ou 424/423 – 348/347 av. J.-C.) était un philosophe athénien de la période classique de la Grèce antique, fondateur de l’École platonicienne de la pensée et de l’Académie, la première institution d’enseignement supérieur dans le monde occidental.
Il est largement considéré comme la figure centrale de l'histoire de la philosophie grecque et occidentale, aux côtés de son professeur, Socrates, et de son plus célèbre élève, Aristote.(En) Platon a aussi souvent été cité comme l'un des fondateurs de la religion et de la spiritualité occidentales.(4) Le soi-disant néoplatonisme de philosophes tels que Plotin et Porphyre a influencé Saint Augustin et donc le christianisme. Alfred North Whitehead a déjà fait remarquer: "La caractérisation générale la plus sûre de la tradition philosophique européenne est qu’elle consiste en une série de notes de bas de page destinées à Platon."
Platon était l'innovateur du dialogue écrit et des formes dialectiques de la philosophie. Platon est également considéré comme le fondateur de la philosophie politique occidentale. Sa contribution la plus connue est la théorie des formes connue par la raison pure, dans laquelle Platon présente une solution au problème d'universels connu sous le nom de platonisme (aussi appelé de manière ambiguë soit le réalisme platonique ou l'idéalisme platonicien. Il est également l'homonyme de l'amour platonique et des solides platoniques.
On pense généralement que son influence philosophique la plus décisive a été avec Socrate, les pré-Socrates Pythagore, Héraclite et Parménide, bien que peu d’œuvres de ses prédécesseurs soient encore conservées et une grande partie de ce que nous savons de ces personnages provient aujourd’hui de Platon lui-même.(B) Contrairement au travail de presque tous ses contemporains, on pense que la main-d'œuvre entière de Platon est restée intacte pendant plus de 2400 ans.(7) Bien que leur popularité ait fluctué au fil des ans, les œuvres de Platon n'ont jamais été sans lecteurs depuis leur création.
biographie
Début de la vie
Naissance et famille
En raison du manque de comptes de survivants, on en sait peu sur le début de la vie et l'éducation de Platon. Platon appartenait à une famille aristocratique et influente. Selon une tradition controversée, rapportée par le doxographe Diogenes Laërtius, le père de Platon, Ariston, aurait retracé sa descendance du roi d'Athènes, Codrus, et du roi de Messénie, Melanthus.(9)
La mère de Platon était Perictione, dont la famille se vantait d'avoir une relation avec le célèbre législateur et parolier athénien Solon, l'un des sept sages qui ont abrogé les lois de Draco (à l'exception de la peine de mort pour meurtre).(10) Perictione était la soeur de Charmides et la nièce de Critias, deux personnalités des trente tyrans connus sous le nom de Trente, le régime oligarchique court (404–403 av. J.-C.), qui a suivi l'effondrement d'Athènes à la fin de la guerre du Péloponnèse (431 –404 av.(11) Selon certains témoignages, Ariston aurait tenté de forcer son attention sur Perictione, mais aurait échoué. alors le dieu Apollo lui apparut dans une vision et, en conséquence, Ariston Perictione resta inchangé.(12)
L'heure et le lieu exacts de la naissance de Platon sont inconnus. Sur la base de sources anciennes, la plupart des scientifiques modernes pensent qu'il est né à Athènes ou à Egine.(C) entre 429 et 423 avant JC, peu de temps après le début de la guerre du Péloponnèse.(D) La date traditionnelle de la naissance de Platon aux 87e ou 88e Jeux olympiques, soit 428 ou 427 av. J.-C., est basée sur une interprétation douteuse de Diogène Laërtius, qui a déclaré: "Quand (Socrate) est parti, (Platon) a rejoint Cratyle l'Héracleitien et Hermogène, qui philosopheraient à Parménide. Ainsi, huit et huit ans, dit Hermodorus, (Platon) s'est rendu chez Euclide à Mégare. qu'il a rejoint Cratyle et Hermogène. Dans son Septième lettrePlaton note que son âge coïncidait avec le pouvoir des trente, notant: "Mais un adolescent de moins de vingt ans se moquait de lui s'il essayait d'entrer dans l'arène politique." Ainsi, la naissance de Nails Plato date de 424/423.
Selon Neanthes, Platon avait six ans de moins qu'Isocrate et est donc né la même année que le grand homme d'État athénien Périclès (429 av. J.-C.). Jonathan Barnes considère 428 av. comme l'année de la naissance de Platon.(20)(21) Le grammairien Apollodore d’Athènes dans son Chroniques soutient que Platon est né à la 88ème Olympiade.(17) les deux Suda et Sir Thomas Browne a également affirmé qu'il était né lors des 88èmes Jeux olympiques.(16) Une autre légende raconte que, lorsque Platon était un enfant en bas âge, des abeilles s’assis sur ses lèvres pendant qu’il dormait: un renforcement de la douceur du style dans lequel il discuterait de philosophie.(26)
Outre Platon lui-même, Ariston et Perictione ont eu trois autres enfants; deux fils, Adeimantus et Glaucon, et une fille, Potone, mère de Speusippus (neveu et successeur de Platon à la tête de l'académie).(11) Les frères Adeimantus et Glaucon sont mentionnés dans république comme fils d'Ariston,(27) et probablement des frères de Platon, bien que certains aient prétendu être des oncles.(E) Dans un scénario je Objets mémorables, Xenophon a confondu le problème en présentant un Glaucon beaucoup plus jeune que Platon.(29)
Ariston semble être mort dans l'enfance de Platon, bien que la date exacte de sa mort soit difficile.(30) Perictione a ensuite épousé Pyrilampes, le frère de sa mère,(31) qui a souvent servi comme ambassadeur auprès de la cour persane et était un ami de Périclès, chef de la faction démocrate à Athènes.(32) Pyrilampes a eu un fils d'un mariage précédent, Demus, qui était célèbre pour sa beauté.(33) Perictione a donné naissance au deuxième fils de Pyrilampes, Antiphon, le demi-frère de Platon, qui se présente à Parménide.(34)
Contrairement à sa réticence envers lui-même, Platon introduisait souvent ses distingués parents dans leurs dialogues ou les évoquait avec une certaine précision. Outre Adeimantus et Glaucon i républiqueCharmides a un dialogue qui porte son nom; et Critias parle à la fois Charmides et Protagoras. Ces références, parmi d'autres, suggèrent une grande fierté familiale et nous permettent de reconstituer l'arbre généalogique de Platon. Selon Burnet, "la scène d'ouverture de Charmides est une glorification de toute la connexion (familiale) … Les dialogues de Platon ne sont pas seulement un souvenir de Socrate, mais aussi des jours plus heureux pour sa propre famille. "
nom
Que le philosophe dans sa maturité s'est appelé Platon est incontestable, mais l'origine de ce nom est toujours mystérieuse. Platon est un surnom de l'adjectif platys (πλατύς) & # 39; large & # 39; Bien que Platon était un nom assez commun (31 cas sont connus d'Athènes seulement), le nom n'apparaît pas dans la lignée connue de Platon.(38) Les sources de Diogène Laërtius expliquent cela en affirmant que son entraîneur de lutte, Ariston of Argos, l'appelait "large" à cause de sa poitrine et de ses épaules, ou que Platon tirait son nom de la largeur de son éloquence ou de son large front.(39)(40) Sénèque, rappelant une leçon de morale sur la vie frugale, mentionne la signification du nom de Platon: "Son nom lui a été donné à cause de sa large poitrine."(41)
Son vrai nom était apparemment Aristoclès (Ἀριστοκλῆς), ce qui signifie "meilleure réputation".(F) Selon Diogène Laërtius, il porte le nom de son grand-père, comme il était courant dans la société athénienne. Mais il ne s'agit que d'une inscription d'un Aristocle, l'un des premiers archons d'Athènes, datant de 605/4 av. Il n'y a aucune trace d'une ligne d'Aristocle au père de Platon, Ariston. Récemment, un érudit a affirmé que même le nom Aristocles pour Platon était une invention beaucoup plus tardive.(43) Cependant, un autre camarade affirme qu '"il y a de bonnes raisons de ne pas rejeter (l'idée qu'Aristocles était le prénom de Platon) comme une simple invention de ses cinémas", notant à quel point cette histoire est répandue dans nos sources.(38)
éducation
De vieilles sources le décrivent comme un garçon brillant mais modeste qui excellait dans ses études. Apulée nous apprend que Speusippus a loué la vivacité d'esprit et la modestie de Platon en tant que garçon, et que "les premiers fruits de sa jeunesse lui ont valu un travail acharné et son amour d'apprendre".(44) Son père fournit tout le nécessaire pour donner à son fils une bonne éducation. Platon doit donc avoir été initié à la grammaire, à la musique et à la gymnastique par les plus célèbres maîtres de son temps.(45) Platon invoque Damon plusieurs fois république. Platon a été un commutateur et Dicaearchus est allé jusqu'à dire que Platon combattait les jeux isthmiens.(46) Platon avait également suivi un cours de philosophie; Avant de rencontrer Socrate, il s'est familiarisé avec les doctrines de Cratyle et d'Héraclite.(47)
Ambroise croyait que Platon avait rencontré Jérémie en Égypte et avait été influencé par ses idées. Augustin a initialement accepté cette demande, mais l'a ensuite rejetée, arguant qu'elle La ville de dieu que "Platon est né cent ans après la prophétie de Jérémie".(48)(besoin d'offres pour confirmer)
Plus tard la vie et la mort
Platon a peut-être voyagé en Italie, en Sicile, en Égypte et à Cyrène. De retour à Athènes à l'âge de quarante ans, Platon a fondé l'une des plus anciennes écoles organisées connues de la civilisation occidentale sur un site du bosquet de Hecademus ou Academus. L'académie était une vaste enceinte de terrain autour de six étages en dehors d'Athènes même. Une histoire est que le nom de l'académie vient du vieux héros, Academus; Une autre histoire encore est que le nom vient d'un supposé ancien propriétaire du site, un citoyen athénien nommé (également) Academus; Une autre histoire est qu’il porte le nom d’un membre de l’armée de Castor et Pollux, un arcadien nommé Echedemus. L'académie a fonctionné jusqu'à sa destruction par Lucius Cornelius Sulla en 84 av. De nombreux intellectuels ont été formés à l'académie, le plus important étant Aristote.
Tout au long de sa vie, Platon s'est empêtré dans la politique de la ville de Syracuse. Selon Diogène Laërtius, Platon a d'abord visité Syracuse sous le règne de Dionysius. Au cours de ce premier voyage, le beau-frère de Dionysius, Dion de Syracuse, est devenu l'un des disciples de Platon, mais le tyran lui-même s'est tourné vers Platon. Platon a failli mourir, mais il a été vendu en esclavage.(G) Puis Anniceris(H) acheté la liberté de Platon en vingt minas,(56) et l'a renvoyé à la maison. Après la mort de Dionysius, d'après Platon Septième lettre, Dion Platon a demandé à retourner à Syracuse pour guider Dionysius II et le guider pour devenir roi de la philosophie. Dionysius II semblait accepter les enseignements de Platon, mais il se méfia de Dion, son oncle. Dionysius a expulsé Dion et a tenu Platon contre sa volonté. Peu à peu, Platon a quitté Syracuse. Dion reviendrait pour gouverner Dionysius et gouverner Syracuse pendant une courte période avant d'être submergé par Calippus, un disciple de Platon.
Selon Sénèque, Platon est décédé à l'âge de 81 ans le jour même de sa naissance.(57) Suda indique qu'il a vécu 82 ans.(16) tandis que Neanthes prétend avoir 84 ans.(17) Un certain nombre de sources ont expliqué sa mort. Une histoire, basée sur un manuscrit mutilé, suggère que Platon est mort dans son lit tandis qu'une jeune fille trachéale jouait de la flûte pour lui. Une autre tradition suggère que Platon est mort lors d'une fête de mariage. L'histoire est basée sur la référence de Diogène Laërtius à une histoire d'Hermippe, un Alexandrien du troisième siècle. Selon Tertullian, Platon s'est simplement endormi.
Platon possédait une propriété sur Iphistiadae, qu'il avait délibérément laissée à un certain jeune nommé Adeimantus, probablement un parent plus jeune, car Platon avait un frère plus âgé ou un oncle portant ce nom.
impacts
Pythagore
Bien que Socrate ait influencé Platon directement dans les dialogues, l'influence de Pytagora sur Platon, ou dans un sens plus large, les Pytagorans, comme Archytas, semblent également avoir été significatifs. Aristote a fait valoir que la philosophie de Platon a suivi les enseignements des Pythagoriciens,(61) et Cicéron réitère cette affirmation: "On dit que Platon a appris tout ce qui est pythagoricien."(62) Il est probable que les deux hommes ont été influencés par l'orphisme et qu'ils croyaient tous deux en la métempsychose, la transmigration de l'âme.
Pythagore croyait que toutes choses sont des nombres et que le cosmos provient de principes numériques. Il a introduit le concept de forme différent de la matière et que le monde physique est une imitation d'un monde mathématique éternel. Ces idées ont eu une grande influence sur Héraclite, Parménide et Platon.(63)
George Karamanolis note que
Numenius accepta que Pythagore et Platon fussent les deux autorités à suivre en philosophie, mais il considérait que l'autorité de Platon était subordonnée à Pythagore, qu'il considérait comme la source de toute philosophie vraie – y compris celle de Platon. Pour Numenius, seul Platon a écrit tant d’œuvres philosophiques, alors que le point de vue de Pythagore était transmis oralement à l’origine.(64)
Selon R. M. Hare, cette influence est composée de trois points:
- La République platonicienne pourrait être liée à l'idée d'une "société étroitement organisée de penseurs partageant les mêmes idées", telle que celle créée par Pythagore à Croton.
- L'idée que les mathématiques et, en général, la pensée abstraite est un fondement sûr de la pensée philosophique ainsi que "des thèses essentielles en science et en morale".
- Ils ont partagé une "approche mystérieuse de l'âme et de sa place dans le monde matériel".(65)(66)
Platon et maths
Platon a peut-être étudié avec le mathématicien Théodore de Cyrène, et a eu un dialogue baptisé du nom de celui-ci et dont le personnage central est le mathématicien Théétète. Même s'il n'était pas mathématicien, Platon était considéré comme un enseignant accompli en mathématiques. Eudoxe de Cnide, le plus grand mathématicien de la Grèce classique, qui a contribué en grande partie à ce que l'on trouve dans Euclide éléments, a été enseigné par Archytas et Platon. Platon a aidé à distinguer les mathématiques pures des mathématiques appliquées en élargissant le fossé entre «l'arithmétique», désormais appelée théorie numérique, et la «logistique», désormais appelée arithmétique.(I)
Dans le dialogue Timée Platon a associé chacun des quatre éléments classiques (terre, air, eau et feu) à un solide commun (cube, octaèdre, icosaèdre et tétraèdre, respectivement) en raison de leur forme, appelée solide platonique. Le cinquième solide, le dodécaèdre, devait être l'élément qui composait le ciel.
Héraclite et Parménide
Les deux philosophes Héraclite et Parménide, empruntant la voie tracée par des philosophes grecs présocratiques tels que Pythagore, s'éloignent de la mythologie et commencent la tradition métaphysique qui a grandement influencé Platon et se poursuit encore de nos jours.(63)
Les fragments survivants écrits par Héraclite suggèrent que toutes choses changent ou deviennent constamment. Son image de la rivière aux eaux toujours changeantes est bien connue. Selon certaines traditions anciennes telles que Diogène Laërtius, Platon a reçu ces idées par le biais de Héraclite et du disciple Cratyle, qui avaient la vision plus radicale qu'un changement continu justifie le scepticisme, car nous ne pouvons pas définir une chose qui n'a pas de caractère permanent.(68)
Parménide adopta une vision complètement opposée et plaida pour l'idée d'un être immuable et pour que le changement soit une illusion.(63) John Palmer note que "la distinction de Parménide entre les manières d'être les plus importantes et sa dérivation des attributs qui doivent appartenir à ce qui doit être, tout simplement, le qualifie de fondateur de la métaphysique ou de l'ontologie un champ d'investigation différent de la théologie ".(69)
Ces idées de changement et de durée, ou de devenir et d'être, ont influencé Platon dans la formulation de sa théorie des formes.(68)
Le dialogue le plus autocritique de Platon est appelé Parménide, avec Parmenides et son élève Zeno, qui, après le refus du changement par Parménide, a fortement soutenu ses paradoxes pour nier l’existence du mouvement.
Platon sophiste Dialogue inclut un étranger élitiste, partisan de Parménide, pour faire échec à ses arguments contre Parménide. Dans le dialogue, Platon distingue les noms et les verbes et fournit certains des traitements les plus anciens du sujet et du prédicat. Il soutient également que le mouvement et le repos sont tous deux "sont", contre les partisans de Parménide qui disent que le repos est, mais pas le mouvement.
Socrate
Platon était l'un des jeunes adeptes dévoués de Socrate. La relation exacte entre Platon et Socrate est toujours un champ de bataille entre érudits.
Platon ne parle jamais de sa propre voix dans ses dialogues et parle comme Socrate en tous sauf lois. en Autres lettres, dit-il, "aucun écrit sur Platon n’existe ou n’existera jamais, mais ceux que l’on dit maintenant être le sien sont ceux d’un Socrate devenu beau et nouveau";(70) Si la lettre est celle de Platon, la qualification finale semble remettre en question la fidélité historique du dialogue. Au moins xénophons Objets mémorables et Aristophane les nuages semble présenter un portrait quelque peu différent de Socrate de ce que peint Platon. Certains ont souligné le problème de prendre comme voix Socrates de Platon, compte tenu de la réputation d'ironie de Socrates et de la nature dramatique du dialogue.
Aristote attribue une autre doctrine concernant les formes de Platon et de Socrate.(72) Aristote suggère que les idées de Socrate sur les formes peuvent être découvertes par l'exploration du monde naturel, contrairement aux formes de Platon qui existent en dehors et au-delà du domaine ordinaire de la compréhension humaine.
Dans les dialogues avec Platon, cependant, Socrate semble parfois soutenir un côté mystérieux, où il discute de la réincarnation et des religions mystérieuses, ce qui est généralement attribué à Platon.(73) Néanmoins, cette vision de Socrate ne peut être rejetée à la main, car nous ne pouvons être certains des différences entre les vues de Platon et de Socrate. en Meno Platon pointe les mystères d'Eleusis et dit à Meno qu'il comprendrait mieux la réponse de Socrate s'il s'en tenait à la dédicace de la semaine prochaine. Il est possible que Platon et Socrate aient participé aux mystères d'Eleusin.(74)
philosophie
meta ~~ POS = TRUNC
Dans les dialogues de Platon, Socrates et sa compagnie de parties au différend avaient quelque chose à dire sur de nombreux sujets, y compris plusieurs aspects de la métaphysique. Ceux-ci incluent la religion et la science, la nature humaine, l'amour et la sexualité. Plus qu'un dialogue contraste la perception et la réalité, la nature et les coutumes, le corps et l'âme.
les formes
Le "platonisme" et sa théorie des formes (ou théorie des idées) nient la réalité dans le monde matériel et la considèrent simplement comme une image ou une copie du monde réel. La théorie des formes est introduite Phédon dialogue (aussi appelé Sur l'âme), dans laquelle Socrate rejette le pluralisme comme celui d’Anaxagoras, en tant que réponse la plus populaire à Héraclite et à Parménide, tout en donnant un "argument opposé" à l’appui des formulaires.
Selon cette théorie des formes, il existe au moins deux mondes: le monde apparent des objets concrets, la compréhension des sens en constante évolution et un monde immuable et invisible des formes ou des objets abstraits, saisi par la raison pure (λογική). qui soutient ce qui est clair.
On peut également dire qu'il existe trois mondes, où le monde apparent est constitué à la fois du monde des objets matériels et des images mentales, le "troisième domaine" étant constitué des formes. Bien qu’il soit appelé "idéalisme platonicien", il fait donc référence à des idées ou des formes platoniciennes, et non à un idéalisme platonicien, une vision du XVIIIe siècle qui voit la question comme irréelle en faveur de l’esprit. Pour Platon, bien que saisi par l'esprit, seules les formes sont réelles.
Les formes de Platon représentent donc des types de choses, ainsi que des caractéristiques, des schémas et des relations, que nous appelons objets. Tout comme les tables, les chaises et les voitures se rapportent à des objets de ce monde, de la simplicité et de la chaise, et "carness", ainsi que, par exemple, justice, vérité et beauté, font référence à des objets situés dans un autre monde. L'un des exemples de formes les plus cités par Platon était les vérités de la géométrie, telles que le théorème de Pythagore.
En d'autres termes, les formes sont universelles données comme solution au problème des universaux, ou au problème de "l'un et le multiple", par exemple comment un prédicat "rouge" peut s'appliquer à de nombreux objets rouges. Pour Platon, c’est parce qu’il s’agit d’un objet abstrait ou d’une forme de rouge, la rougeur elle-même, dans laquelle les différentes choses rouges "participent". Puisque la solution de Platon est que les universaux sont des formes et que les formes sont réelles à propos de quelque chose, la philosophie de Platon s'appelle uniquement le réalisme platonicien. Selon Aristote, l'argument le plus connu de Platon à l'appui des Formes était l'argument du "trop grand nombre".
En plus d'être immuables, intemporels, changeants et nombreux, les formulaires fournissent également des définitions et des normes à l'aune desquelles toutes les occurrences sont mesurées. Dans les dialogues, Socrate demande régulièrement le sens – au sens de définitions intentionnelles – d'un concept général (par exemple, justice, vérité, beauté) et critique ceux qui lui donnent plutôt des exemples spéciaux et détaillés, plutôt que la qualité partagée par tous. des exemples. .
C'est donc un monde de significations parfaites, éternelles et changeantes des prédicats, des formes qui existent dans le monde de l'être en dehors de l'espace et du temps; et le monde imparfaitement sensible du devenir, soumis d'une manière ou d'une autre à un état situé entre l'être et rien, qui partage les qualités des formes et constitue son introduction immédiate.
l'âme
Platon préconise de croire en l'immortalité de l'âme et plusieurs dialogues se terminent par de longs discours imaginant l'au-delà. en Timée, Socrate situe les parties de l’âme dans le corps humain: la raison se situe dans la tête, l’esprit dans le tiers supérieur du haut du corps et l’appétit dans le tiers moyen du haut du corps, jusqu’au nombril.(75)
épistémologie
Socrate discute également de plusieurs aspects de l'épistémologie, tels que la sagesse. Plus qu'un dialogue contraste la connaissance et le sens. L'épistémologie de Platon signifie que Socrate soutient que la connaissance n'est pas empirique et qu'elle provient d'une vision divine. Les formulaires sont également responsables à la fois des connaissances et de la sécurité, et sont compris par le bon sens.
Dans plusieurs dialogues, Socrate a inversé l'intuition de l'homme ordinaire de ce qui est connu et de ce qui est réel. La réalité n'est pas disponible pour ceux qui utilisent leurs sens. Socrate dit que celui qui regarde avec ses yeux est aveugle. Alors que la plupart des gens pensent que leur esprit est réel, Socrate est méprisable pour ceux qui pensent que quelque chose doit être compréhensible entre eux pour être réel. en Théétète, il dit que ces personnes sont eu amousoi (εὖ ἄμουσοι), terme qui signifie littéralement "heureux sans les souris".(77) En d'autres termes, ces personnes sont volontairement ignorantes, vivent sans inspiration divine et n'ont pas accès à une vision plus profonde de la réalité.
Dans les dialogues de Platon, Socrate insiste toujours sur son ignorance et son humilité pour qu'il ne sache rien, la soi-disant ironie socratique. Plusieurs dialogues réfutent un certain nombre de points de vue mais n'offrent aucune position positive se terminant en aporie.
souvenir
Dans plusieurs dialogues de Platon, Socrate annonce l'idée que la connaissance est une question de souvenir de l'État avant sa naissance, et non d'observation ou d'étude. Suivant le thème de son ignorance, Socrate se plaint régulièrement d'oubli. en MenoSocrate utilise un exemple géométrique pour expliquer le point de vue de Platon selon lequel la connaissance dans ce dernier sens est acquise par la mémoire. Socrate signale un fait lié à une construction géométrique d'un garçon esclave qui, autrement, ne l'aurait pas su (à cause du manque d'éducation de ce dernier). La connaissance doit être présente, conclut Socrate, sous une forme éternelle et non expérimentale.
Dans d'autres dialogues, sophiste, homme d'État, républiqueet Parménide, Platon lui-même relie la connaissance à la compréhension de formes immuables et à leurs relations mutuelles (qu’il appelle «expertise» en dialectique), y compris à travers les processus de collection et division. Plus explicitement, Platon lui-même soutient dans i Timée cette connaissance est toujours en relation avec le royaume d'où elle provient. En d’autres termes, si l’on tire son récit de quelque chose d’expérimental, parce que le monde des sens est intimement lié, les points de vue ainsi obtenus ne sont que des opinions. Et les opinions se caractérisent par un manque de nécessité et de stabilité. D'un autre côté, si l'on tire son récit de quelque chose à partir de formes non sensibles, parce que ces formes sont immuables, l'histoire leur est empruntée. Cette compréhension des formes est nécessaire pour que la connaissance puisse être prise conformément à la théorie de Platon dans Théétète et Meno. En fait, la compréhension des formes peut être au bas du "compte" requis pour la justification, en ce sens qu'elle offre des connaissances de base qui ne nécessitent aucune explication, évitant ainsi une régression infinie.
Justifié croyance vraie
Beaucoup ont interprété Platon comme disant, même après avoir été le premier à écrire, que la connaissance est une justification réelle, un point de vue influent informé des développements futurs de l'épistémologie. Cette interprétation est basée en partie sur une lecture de Théétète où Platon soutient que la connaissance est séparée de la croyance vraie pure par la personne qui connaît une "histoire" sur le sujet de sa croyance vraie.(83) Et cette théorie peut encore être vu dans Meno, où il est suggéré que la vraie foi puisse être élevée au niveau de la connaissance si elle est liée par une explication de la question du "pourquoi" l’objet de la vraie conviction est ainsi.(84)
Plusieurs années plus tard, Edmund Gettier a démontré les problèmes de la véritable croyance légitime en la connaissance. Que la théorie moderne de la croyance vraie justifiée en tant que connaissance adressée par Gettier correspond à l'acceptation de Platon par certains érudits, mais rejetée par d'autres. Platon lui-même a également identifié des problèmes la vraie foi justifiée définition i Théétète, pour conclure que la justification (ou un "compte") nécessiterait la connaissance de différence, ce qui signifie que la définition de la connaissance est circulaire.(87)
éthique
Plusieurs dialogues abordent l'éthique, notamment la vertu et la sagesse, la joie et la douleur, le crime et le châtiment, la justice et la médecine. Platon voit "le bien" comme la forme suprême, qui existe même "au-delà".
Socrate prônait un intellectuel moral qui affirmait que personne ne faisait rien de mal intentionnellement et que l'on savait quels sont les bons résultats en faisant ce qui est bien. cette connaissance est la vertu. en Protagoras le dialogue soutient que la vertu est innée et ne peut pas être apprise.
Socrate présente le fameux dilemme Euthyphro dans le dialogue du même nom.
politique
Les dialogues traitent également de politique. Certains des enseignements les plus connus de Platon sont contenus dans république ainsi que dans lois et homme d'État. Parce que ces enseignements ne sont pas directement parlés par Platon et varient d'un dialogue à l'autre, on ne peut facilement supposer qu'ils représentent les vues de Platon.
Socrate prétend que la société a une structure de classe tripartite qui correspond à l'appétit / esprit / raison de l'âme individuelle. L'appétit / esprit / raison est analogue à la distribution de la société.
- productif (Ouvriers) – Les ouvriers, menuisiers, plombiers, maçons, marchands, agriculteurs, agriculteurs, etc. Ceci correspond à la partie "appétit" de l'âme.
- protecteur (Guerriers ou gardiens) – ceux qui sont aventureux, forts et courageux; dans les forces armées. Celles-ci correspondent à la partie "esprit" des âmes.
- gouvernement (Souverains ou rois philosophes) – ceux qui sont intelligents, rationnels, qui se contrôlent d'eux-mêmes, qui aiment la sagesse et qui sont aptes à prendre des décisions pour la société. Celles-ci correspondent à la partie "raison" de l'âme et sont très peu nombreuses.
Selon ce modèle, les princes de la démocratie athénienne (telle qu’elle existait à son époque) sont rejetés, car seuls quelques-uns sont aptes à gouverner. Au lieu de rhétorique et de persuasion, Socrate dit que la raison et la sagesse devraient gouverner. Comme le dit Socrate:
- "Jusqu'à ce que les philosophes règnent en tant que rois ou qu'on les appelle maintenant rois et hommes dirigeants, philosophes réels et suffisants, c'est-à-dire jusqu'à ce que le pouvoir politique et la philosophie coïncident complètement, tandis que les nombreuses natures qui en poursuivent une aujourd'hui sont exclusivement empêchées de le faire , les villes ne se reposeront pas du mal, … ni, je pense, le genre humain ".(90)
Socrate décrit ces "rois de la philosophie" comme "ceux qui aiment la vision de la vérité"(91) et soutient l'idée d'une analogie entre un capitaine et son navire ou un médecin et ses médicaments. Selon lui, la voile et la santé ne sont pas des choses que tout le monde est qualifié pour pratiquer par nature. Une grande partie de république Il aborde ensuite la manière dont le système éducatif devrait être mis en place pour produire ces rois philosophiques.
De plus, la ville idéale est utilisée comme image pour éclairer la condition de son âme ou la volonté, la raison et les désirs combinés dans le corps humain. Socrates essaie de créer une image d'un être humain correctement organisé et décrit plus tard les différents types d'êtres humains que l'on peut observer, des tyrans aux amateurs d'argent dans différentes villes. La ville idéale n'est pas promue, mais sert uniquement à magnifier différents types d'individus et la condition des âmes. Cependant, l'image royale du philosophe a été utilisée par beaucoup après Platon pour justifier leurs convictions politiques personnelles. L'âme philosophique selon Socrate a un sens commun, une volonté et des désirs dans une harmonie vertueuse. Un philosophe a l'amour modéré de la sagesse et le courage d'agir selon la sagesse. La sagesse est la connaissance des relations bonnes ou justes entre tout ce qui existe.
Socrates demande ce qu’il ya de mieux en ce qui concerne les États et les dirigeants – une mauvaise démocratie ou un pays gouverné par un tyran. Il fait valoir qu'il vaut mieux être gouverné par un mauvais tyran que par une mauvaise démocratie (ici, tout le monde est maintenant responsable de tels actes, plutôt que de commettre beaucoup de mauvaises actions). république comme Socrate décrit l'incident de la mutinerie à bord d'un navire.(92) Socrates suggère que l'équipage du navire est conforme au régime démocratique de beaucoup et du capitaine, même s'ils sont gênés par des bourreaux, le tyran. La description de cet incident faite par Socrates est parallèle à la démocratie démocratique de l'État et aux problèmes inhérents qui se posent.
Selon Socrates, un État composé de différents types d'âmes passera d'une aristocratie (règle des meilleurs) à une timocratie (règle des honorés), puis à une oligarchie (règle des quelques-uns), puis à une démocratie (règle par le peuple), et enfin à la tyrannie (règle par une personne, règle par un tyran). Aristocracy in the sense of government (politeia) is advocated in Plato's Republic. This regime is ruled by a philosopher king, and thus is grounded on wisdom and reason.
The aristocratic state, and the man whose nature corresponds to it, are the objects of Plato's analyses throughout much of the Republic, as opposed to the other four types of states/men, who are discussed later in his work. In Book VIII, Socrates states in order the other four imperfect societies with a description of the state's structure and individual character. In timocracy the ruling class is made up primarily of those with a warrior-like character.(94) Oligarchy is made up of a society in which wealth is the criterion of merit and the wealthy are in control.(95) In democracy, the state bears resemblance to ancient Athens with traits such as equality of political opportunity and freedom for the individual to do as he likes.(96) Democracy then degenerates into tyranny from the conflict of rich and poor. It is characterized by an undisciplined society existing in chaos, where the tyrant rises as popular champion leading to the formation of his private army and the growth of oppression.(97)
Art and poetry
Several dialogues tackle questions about art, including rhetoric and rhapsody. Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the muses, and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness (drunkenness, eroticism, and dreaming) in the Phaedrus,(99) and yet in the Republic wants to outlaw Homer's great poetry, and laughter as well. en Ion, Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the Republic. The dialogue Ion suggests that Homer's Iliad functioned in the ancient Greek world as the Bible does today in the modern Christian world: as divinely inspired literature that can provide moral guidance, if only it can be properly interpreted.
Unwritten doctrines
For a long time, Plato's unwritten doctrines(100)(101)(102) had been controversial. Many modern books on Plato seem to diminish its importance; nevertheless, the first important witness who mentions its existence is Aristotle, who in his Physics writes: "It is true, indeed, that the account he gives there (i.e. in Timaeus) of the participant is different from what he says in his so-called unwritten teachings (ἄγραφα δόγματα)."(103) The term "ἄγραφα δόγματα" literally means unwritten doctrines and it stands for the most fundamental metaphysical teaching of Plato, which he disclosed only orally, and some say only to his most trusted fellows, and which he may have kept secret from the public. The importance of the unwritten doctrines does not seem to have been seriously questioned before the 19th century.
A reason for not revealing it to everyone is partially discussed in Phaedrus where Plato criticizes the written transmission of knowledge as faulty, favoring instead the spoken logos: "he who has knowledge of the just and the good and beautiful … will not, when in earnest, write them in ink, sowing them through a pen with words, which cannot defend themselves by argument and cannot teach the truth effectually."(104) The same argument is repeated in Plato's Seventh Letter: "every serious man in dealing with really serious subjects carefully avoids writing."(105) In the same letter he writes: "I can certainly declare concerning all these writers who claim to know the subjects that I seriously study … there does not exist, nor will there ever exist, any treatise of mine dealing therewith."(106) Such secrecy is necessary in order not "to expose them to unseemly and degrading treatment".(107)
It is, however, said that Plato once disclosed this knowledge to the public in his lecture On the Good (Περὶ τἀγαθοῦ), in which the Good (τὸ ἀγαθόν) is identified with the One (the Unity, τὸ ἕν), the fundamental ontological principle. The content of this lecture has been transmitted by several witnesses. Aristoxenus describes the event in the following words: "Each came expecting to learn something about the things that are generally considered good for men, such as wealth, good health, physical strength, and altogether a kind of wonderful happiness. But when the mathematical demonstrations came, including numbers, geometrical figures and astronomy, and finally the statement Good is One seemed to them, I imagine, utterly unexpected and strange; hence some belittled the matter, while others rejected it."(108)Simplicius quotes Alexander of Aphrodisias, who states that "according to Plato, the first principles of everything, including the Forms themselves are One and Indefinite Duality (ἡ ἀόριστος δυάς), which he called Large and Small (τὸ μέγα καὶ τὸ μικρόν)", and Simplicius reports as well that "one might also learn this from Speusippus and Xenocrates and the others who were present at Plato's lecture on the Good".(43)
Their account is in full agreement with Aristotle's description of Plato's metaphysical doctrine. en Metaphysics he writes: "Now since the Forms are the causes of everything else, he (i.e. Plato) supposed that their elements are the elements of all things. Accordingly the material principle is the Great and Small (i.e. the Dyad), and the essence is the One (τὸ ἕν), since the numbers are derived from the Great and Small by participation in the One".(109) "From this account it is clear that he only employed two causes: that of the essence, and the material cause; for the Forms are the cause of the essence in everything else, and the One is the cause of it in the Forms. He also tells us what the material substrate is of which the Forms are predicated in the case of sensible things, and the One in that of the Forms—that it is this the duality (the Dyad, ἡ δυάς), the Great and Small (τὸ μέγα καὶ τὸ μικρόν). Further, he assigned to these two elements respectively the causation of good and of evil".(109)
The most important aspect of this interpretation of Plato's metaphysics is the continuity between his teaching and the Neoplatonic interpretation of Plotinus(j) or Ficino(k) which has been considered erroneous by many but may in fact have been directly influenced by oral transmission of Plato's doctrine. A modern scholar who recognized the importance of the unwritten doctrine of Plato was Heinrich Gomperz who described it in his speech during the 7th International Congress of Philosophy in 1930. All the sources related to the ἄγραφα δόγματα have been collected by Konrad Gaiser and published as Testimonia Platonica. These sources have subsequently been interpreted by scholars from the German Tübingen School of interpretation such as Hans Joachim Krämer or Thomas A. Szlezák.(l)
Themes of Plato's dialogues
Trial of Socrates
The trial of Socrates and his death sentence is the central, unifying event of Plato's dialogues. It is relayed in the dialogues Apology, Critoet Phaedo. Apology is Socrates' defense speech, and Crito et Phaedo take place in prison after the conviction.
Apology is among the most frequently read of Plato's works. In the Apology, Socrates tries to dismiss rumors that he is a sophist and defends himself against charges of disbelief in the gods and corruption of the young. Socrates insists that long-standing slander will be the real cause of his demise, and says the legal charges are essentially false. Socrates famously denies being wise, and explains how his life as a philosopher was launched by the Oracle at Delphi. He says that his quest to resolve the riddle of the oracle put him at odds with his fellow man, and that this is the reason he has been mistaken for a menace to the city-state of Athens.
en Apology, Socrates is presented as mentioning Plato by name as one of those youths close enough to him to have been corrupted, if he were in fact guilty of corrupting the youth, and questioning why their fathers and brothers did not step forward to testify against him if he was indeed guilty of such a crime.(112) Later, Plato is mentioned along with Crito, Critobolus, and Apollodorus as offering to pay a fine of 30 minas on Socrates' behalf, in lieu of the death penalty proposed by Meletus.(113) In the Phaedo, the title character lists those who were in attendance at the prison on Socrates' last day, explaining Plato's absence by saying, "Plato was ill".(114)
The trial in other dialogues
If Plato's important dialogues do not refer to Socrates' execution explicitly, they allude to it, or use characters or themes that play a part in it. Five dialogues foreshadow the trial: In the Theaetetus et Euthyphro Socrates tells people that he is about to face corruption charges.(115)(116) In the Meno, one of the men who brings legal charges against Socrates, Anytus, warns him about the trouble he may get into if he does not stop criticizing important people.(117) In the Gorgias, Socrates says that his trial will be like a doctor prosecuted by a cook who asks a jury of children to choose between the doctor's bitter medicine and the cook's tasty treats.(118) In the Republic, Socrates explains why an enlightened man (presumably himself) will stumble in a courtroom situation.(119) Plato's support of aristocracy and distrust of democracy is also taken to be partly rooted in a democracy having killed Socrates. In the Protagoras, Socrates is a guest at the home of Callias, son of Hipponicus, a man whom Socrates disparages in the Apology as having wasted a great amount of money on sophists' fees.
Two other important dialogues, the Symposium et Phaedrus, are linked to the main storyline by characters. In the Apology, Socrates says Aristophanes slandered him in a comic play, and blames him for causing his bad reputation, and ultimately, his death.(120) In the Symposium, the two of them are drinking together with other friends. The character Phaedrus is linked to the main story line by character (Phaedrus is also a participant in the Symposium et Protagoras) and by theme (the philosopher as divine emissary, etc.) The Protagoras is also strongly linked to the Symposium by characters: all of the formal speakers at the Symposium (with the exception of Aristophanes) are present at the home of Callias in that dialogue. Charmides and his guardian Critias are present for the discussion in the Protagoras. Examples of characters crossing between dialogues can be further multiplied. ils Protagoras contains the largest gathering of Socratic associates.
In the dialogues Plato is most celebrated and admired for, Socrates is concerned with human and political virtue, has a distinctive personality, and friends and enemies who "travel" with him from dialogue to dialogue. This is not to say that Socrates is consistent: a man who is his friend in one dialogue may be an adversary or subject of his mockery in another. For example, Socrates praises the wisdom of Euthyphro many times in the Cratylus, but makes him look like a fool in the Euthyphro. He disparages sophists generally, and Prodicus specifically in the Apology, whom he also slyly jabs in the Cratylus for charging the hefty fee of fifty drachmas for a course on language and grammar. However, Socrates tells Theaetetus in his namesake dialogue that he admires Prodicus and has directed many pupils to him. Socrates' ideas are also not consistent within or between or among dialogues.
Allegories
Mythos et logos are terms that evolved along classical Greece history. In the times of Homer and Hesiod (8th century BC) they were essentially synonyms, and contained the meaning of 'tale' or 'history'. Later came historians like Herodotus and Thucydides, as well as philosophers like Heraclitus and Parmenides and other Presocratics who introduced a distinction between both terms; mythos became more a nonverifiable account, and logos a rational account.(121) It may seem that Plato, being a disciple of Socrates and a strong partisan of philosophy based on logos, should have avoided the use of myth-telling. Instead he made an abundant use of it. This fact has produced analytical and interpretative work, in order to clarify the reasons and purposes for that use.
Plato, in general, distinguished between three types of myth.(m) First there were the false myths, like those based on stories of gods subject to passions and sufferings, because reason teaches that God is perfect. Then came the myths based on true reasoning, and therefore also true. Finally there were those non verifiable because beyond of human reason, but containing some truth in them. Regarding the subjects of Plato's myths they are of two types, those dealing with the origin of the universe, and those about morals and the origin and fate of the soul.(122)
It is generally agreed that the main purpose for Plato in using myths was didactic. He considered that only a few people were capable or interested in following a reasoned philosophical discourse, but men in general are attracted by stories and tales. Consequently, then, he used the myth to convey the conclusions of the philosophical reasoning. Some of Plato's myths were based in traditional ones, others were modifications of them, and finally he also invented altogether new myths.(123) Notable examples include the story of Atlantis, the Myth of Er, and the Allegory of the Cave.
The Cave
The theory of Forms is most famously captured in his Allegory of the Cave, and more explicitly in his analogy of the sun and the divided line. The Allegory of the Cave is a paradoxical analogy wherein Socrates argues that the invisible world is the most intelligible ('noeton') and that the visible world ((h)oraton) is the least knowable, and the most obscure.
Socrates says in the Republic that people who take the sun-lit world of the senses to be good and real are living pitifully in a den of evil and ignorance. Socrates admits that few climb out of the den, or cave of ignorance, and those who do, not only have a terrible struggle to attain the heights, but when they go back down for a visit or to help other people up, they find themselves objects of scorn and ridicule.
According to Socrates, physical objects and physical events are "shadows" of their ideal or perfect forms, and exist only to the extent that they instantiate the perfect versions of themselves. Just as shadows are temporary, inconsequential epiphenomena produced by physical objects, physical objects are themselves fleeting phenomena caused by more substantial causes, the ideals of which they are mere instances. For example, Socrates thinks that perfect justice exists (although it is not clear where) and his own trial would be a cheap copy of it.
The Allegory of the Cave is intimately connected to his political ideology, that only people who have climbed out of the cave and cast their eyes on a vision of goodness are fit to rule. Socrates claims that the enlightened men of society must be forced from their divine contemplation and be compelled to run the city according to their lofty insights. Thus is born the idea of the "philosopher-king", the wise person who accepts the power thrust upon him by the people who are wise enough to choose a good master. This is the main thesis of Socrates in the Republic, that the most wisdom the masses can muster is the wise choice of a ruler.(124)
Ring of Gyges
A ring which could make one invisible, the Ring of Gyges is considered in the Republic for its ethical consequences.
Chariot
He also compares the soul (Psyche) to a chariot. In this allegory he introduces a triple soul which composed of a Charioteer and two horses. Charioteer is a symbol of intellectual and logical part of the soul (logistikon), and two horses represents moral virtues (thymoeides) and passionate instincts (epithymetikon), Respectively.
Dialectic
Socrates employs a dialectic method which proceeds by questioning. The role of dialectic in Plato's thought is contested but there are two main interpretations: a type of reasoning and a method of intuition.Simon Blackburn adopts the first, saying that Plato's dialectic is "the process of eliciting the truth by means of questions aimed at opening out what is already implicitly known, or at exposing the contradictions and muddles of an opponent's position." A similar interpretation has been put forth by Louis Hartz, who suggests that elements of the dialectic are borrowed from Hegel.(126) According to this view, opposing arguments improve upon each other, and prevailing opinion is shaped by the synthesis of many conflicting ideas over time. Each new idea exposes a flaw in the accepted model, and the epistemological substance of the debate continually approaches the truth. Hartz's is a teleological interpretation at the core, in which philosophers will ultimately exhaust the available body of knowledge and thus reach "the end of history." Karl Popper, on the other hand, claims that dialectic is the art of intuition for "visualising the divine originals, the Forms or Ideas, of unveiling the Great Mystery behind the common man's everyday world of appearances."
Family
Plato often discusses the father-son relationship and the question of whether a father's interest in his sons has much to do with how well his sons turn out. In ancient Athens, a boy was socially located by his family identity, and Plato often refers to his characters in terms of their paternal and fraternal relationships. Socrates was not a family man, and saw himself as the son of his mother, who was apparently a midwife. A divine fatalist, Socrates mocks men who spent exorbitant fees on tutors and trainers for their sons, and repeatedly ventures the idea that good character is a gift from the gods. Plato's dialogue Crito reminds Socrates that orphans are at the mercy of chance, but Socrates is unconcerned. In the Theaetetus, he is found recruiting as a disciple a young man whose inheritance has been squandered. Socrates twice compares the relationship of the older man and his boy lover to the father-son relationship,(128)(129) and in the Phaedo, Socrates' disciples, towards whom he displays more concern than his biological sons, say they will feel "fatherless" when he is gone.
Though Plato agreed with Aristotle that women were inferior to men, he thought because of this women needed an education. Plato thought weak men who live poor lives would be reincarnated as women. "Humans have a twofold nature, the superior kind should be such as would from then on be called "man".'
Narration
Plato never presents himself as a participant in any of the dialogues, and with the exception of the Apology, there is no suggestion that he heard any of the dialogues firsthand. Some dialogues have no narrator but have a pure "dramatic" form (examples: Meno, Gorgias, Phaedrus, Crito, Euthyphro), some dialogues are narrated by Socrates, wherein he speaks in first person (examples: Lysis, Charmides, Republic). One dialogue, Protagoras, begins in dramatic form but quickly proceeds to Socrates' narration of a conversation he had previously with the sophist for whom the dialogue is named; this narration continues uninterrupted till the dialogue's end.
Two dialogues Phaedo et Symposium also begin in dramatic form but then proceed to virtually uninterrupted narration by followers of Socrates. Phaedo, an account of Socrates' final conversation and hemlock drinking, is narrated by Phaedo to Echecrates in a foreign city not long after the execution took place.(n) ils Symposium is narrated by Apollodorus, a Socratic disciple, apparently to Glaucon. Apollodorus assures his listener that he is recounting the story, which took place when he himself was an infant, not from his own memory, but as remembered by Aristodemus, who told him the story years ago.
ils Theaetetus is a peculiar case: a dialogue in dramatic form embedded within another dialogue in dramatic form. In the beginning of the Theaetetus,(131)Euclides says that he compiled the conversation from notes he took based on what Socrates told him of his conversation with the title character. The rest of the Theaetetus is presented as a "book" written in dramatic form and read by one of Euclides' slaves.(132) Some scholars take this as an indication that Plato had by this date wearied of the narrated form. With the exception of the Theaetetus, Plato gives no explicit indication as to how these orally transmitted conversations came to be written down.
History of Plato's dialogues
Thirty-five dialogues and thirteen letters (the Epistles) have traditionally been ascribed to Plato, though modern scholarship doubts the authenticity of at least some of these. Plato's writings have been published in several fashions; this has led to several conventions regarding the naming and referencing of Plato's texts.
The usual system for making unique references to sections of the text by Plato derives from a 16th-century edition of Plato's works by Henricus Stephanus known as Stephanus pagination.
One tradition regarding the arrangement of Plato's texts is according to tetralogies. This scheme is ascribed by Diogenes Laërtius to an ancient scholar and court astrologer to Tiberius named Thrasyllus.
Chronology
No one knows the exact order Plato's dialogues were written in, nor the extent to which some might have been later revised and rewritten. The works are usually grouped into Early (sometimes by some into Transitional), Middleet Late period.(134)(135) This choice to group chronologically is thought worthy of criticism by some (Cooper et al),(136) given that it is recognized that there is no absolute agreement as to the true chronology, since the facts of the temporal order of writing are not confidently ascertained.(137) Chronology was not a consideration in ancient times, in that groupings of this nature are virtually absent (Tarrant) in the extant writings of ancient Platonists.(138)
Whereas those classified as "early dialogues" often conclude in aporia, the so-called "middle dialogues" provide more clearly stated positive teachings that are often ascribed to Plato such as the theory of Forms. The remaining dialogues are classified as "late" and are generally agreed to be difficult and challenging pieces of philosophy. This grouping is the only one proven by stylometric analysis. Among those who classify the dialogues into periods of composition, Socrates figures in all of the "early dialogues" and they are considered the most faithful representations of the historical Socrates.
The following represents one relatively common division.(141) It should, however, be kept in mind that many of the positions in the ordering are still highly disputed, and also that the very notion that Plato's dialogues can or should be "ordered" is by no means universally accepted. Increasingly in the most recent Plato scholarship, writers are skeptical of the notion that the order of Plato's writings can be established with any precision,(142) though Plato's works are still often characterized as falling at least roughly into three groups.(6)
Early: Apology, Charmides, Crito, Euthyphro, Gorgias, (Lesser) Hippias (minor), (Greater) Hippias (major), Ion, Laches, Lysis, Protagoras
Middle: Cratylus, Euthydemus, Meno, Parmenides, Phaedo, Phaedrus, Republic, Symposium, Theaetetus
Late: Critias, Sophist, Statesman / Politicus, Timaeus, Philebus, Laws.
A significant distinction of the early Plato and the later Plato has been offered by scholars such as E.R. Dodds and has been summarized by Harold Bloom in his book titled Agon: "E.R. Dodds is the classical scholar whose writings most illuminated the Hellenic descent (in) The Greeks and the Irrational … In his chapter on Plato and the Irrational Soul … Dodds traces Plato's spiritual evolution from the pure rationalist of the Protagoras to the transcendental psychologist, influenced by the Pythagoreans and Orphics, of the later works culminating in the Laws".
Lewis Campbell was the first to make exhaustive use of stylometry to prove objectively that the Critias, Timaeus, Laws, Philebus, Sophistet Statesman were all clustered together as a group, while the Parmenides, Phaedrus, Republicet Theaetetus belong to a separate group, which must be earlier (given Aristotle's statement in his Politics(145) that the Laws was written after the Republic; cf. Diogenes Laërtius Lives 3.37). What is remarkable about Campbell's conclusions is that, in spite of all the stylometric studies that have been conducted since his time, perhaps the only chronological fact about Plato's works that can now be said to be proven by stylometry is the fact that Critias, Timaeus, Laws, Philebus, Sophistet Statesman are the latest of Plato's dialogues, the others earlier.
Protagoras is often considered one of the last of the "early dialogues". Three dialogues are often considered "transitional" or "pre-middle": Euthydemus, Gorgiaset Meno. Proponents of dividing the dialogues into periods often consider the Parmenides et Theaetetus to come late in the middle period and be transitional to the next, as they seem to treat the theory of Forms critically (Parmenides) or only indirectly (Theaetetus).(146) Ritter's stylometric analysis places Phaedrus as probably after Theaetetus et Parmenides,(147) although it does not relate to the theory of Forms in the same way. The first book of the Republic is often thought to have been written significantly earlier than the rest of the work, although possibly having undergone revisions when the later books were attached to it.(146)
While looked to for Plato's "mature" answers to the questions posed by his earlier works, those answers are difficult to discern. Some scholars indicate that the theory of Forms is absent from the late dialogues, its having been refuted in the Parmenides, but there isn't total consensus that the Parmenides actually refutes the theory of Forms.
Writings of doubted authenticity
Jowett mentions in his Appendix to Menexenus, that works which bore the character of a writer were attributed to that writer even when the actual author was unknown.(149)
For below:
(*) if there is no consensus among scholars as to whether Plato is the author, and (‡) if most scholars agree that Plato is ikke the author of the work.(150)
First Alcibiades (*), Second Alcibiades (‡), Clitophon (*), Epinomis (‡), Epistles (*), Hipparchus (‡), Menexenus (*), Minos (‡), (Rival) Lovers (‡), Theages (‡)
Spurious writings
The following works were transmitted under Plato's name, most of them already considered spurious in antiquity, and so were not included by Thrasyllus in his tetralogical arrangement. These works are labelled as Notheuomenoi ("spurious") or Apocrypha.
Textual sources and history
Some 250 known manuscripts of Plato survive. The texts of Plato as received today apparently represent the complete written philosophical work of Plato and are generally good by the standards of textual criticism.(152) No modern edition of Plato in the original Greek represents a single source, but rather it is reconstructed from multiple sources which are compared with each other. These sources are medieval manuscripts written on vellum (mainly from 9th to 13th century AD Byzantium), papyri (mainly from late antiquity in Egypt), and from the independent testimonia of other authors who quote various segments of the works (which come from a variety of sources). The text as presented is usually not much different from what appears in the Byzantine manuscripts, and papyri and testimonia just confirm the manuscript tradition. In some editions however the readings in the papyri or testimonia are favoured in some places by the editing critic of the text. Reviewing editions of papyri for the Republic in 1987, Slings suggests that the use of papyri is hampered due to some poor editing practices.
In the first century AD, Thrasyllus of Mendes had compiled and published the works of Plato in the original Greek, both genuine and spurious. While it has not survived to the present day, all the extant medieval Greek manuscripts are based on his edition.
The oldest surviving complete manuscript for many of the dialogues is the Clarke Plato (Codex Oxoniensis Clarkianus 39, or Codex Boleianus MS E.D. Clarke 39), which was written in Constantinople in 895 and acquired by Oxford University in 1809.(155) The Clarke is given the siglum B in modern editions. B contains the first six tetralogies and is described internally as being written by "John the Calligrapher" on behalf of Arethas of Caesarea. It appears to have undergone corrections by Arethas himself. For the last two tetralogies and the apocrypha, the oldest surviving complete manuscript is Codex Parisinus graecus 1807, designated FR, which was written nearly contemporaneously to B, circa 900 AD.FR must be a copy of the edition edited by the patriarch, Photios, teacher of Arethas.(158)(159)(160)FR probably had an initial volume containing the first 7 tetralogies which is now lost, but of which a copy was made, Codex Venetus append. class. 4, 1, which has the siglum T. The oldest manuscript for the seventh tetralogy is Codex Vindobonensis 54. suppl. phil. Gr. 7, with siglum W, with a supposed date in the twelfth century. In total there are fifty-one such Byzantine manuscripts known, while others may yet be found.
To help establish the text, the older evidence of papyri and the independent evidence of the testimony of commentators and other authors (i.e., those who quote and refer to an old text of Plato which is no longer extant) are also used. Many papyri which contain fragments of Plato's texts are among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri. The 2003 Oxford Classical Texts edition by Slings even cites the Coptic translation of a fragment of the Republic in the Nag Hammadi library as evidence. Important authors for testimony include Olympiodorus the Younger, Plutarch, Proclus, Iamblichus, Eusebius, and Stobaeus.
During the early Renaissance, the Greek language and, along with it, Plato's texts were reintroduced to Western Europe by Byzantine scholars. In September or October 1484 Filippo Valori and Francesco Berlinghieri printed 1025 copies of Ficino's translation, using the printing press at the Dominican convent S.Jacopo di Ripoli.(164) Cosimo had been influenced toward studying Plato by the many Byzantine Platonists in Florence during his day, including George Gemistus Plethon.
The 1578 edition(166) of Plato's complete works published by Henricus Stephanus (Henri Estienne) in Geneva also included parallel Latin translation and running commentary by Joannes Serranus (Jean de Serres). It was this edition which established standard Stephanus pagination, still in use today.
Modern editions
The Oxford Classical Texts offers the current standard complete Greek text of Plato's complete works. In five volumes edited by John Burnet, its first edition was published 1900-1907, and it is still available from the publisher, having last been printed in 1993.(169) The second edition is still in progress with only the first volume, printed in 1995, and the Republic, printed in 2003, available. ils Cambridge Greek and Latin Texts et Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries series includes Greek editions of the Protagoras, Symposium, Phaedrus, Alcibiadeset Clitophon, with English philological, literary, and, to an extent, philosophical commentary.(170)(171) One distinguished edition of the Greek text is E. R. Dodds' of the Gorgias, which includes extensive English commentary.
The modern standard complete English edition is the 1997 Hackett Plato, Complete Works, edited by John M. Cooper.(175) For many of these translations Hackett offers separate volumes which include more by way of commentary, notes, and introductory material. There is also the Clarendon Plato Series by Oxford University Press which offers English translations and thorough philosophical commentary by leading scholars on a few of Plato's works, including John McDowell's version of the Theaetetus.(176) Cornell University Press has also begun the Agora series of English translations of classical and medieval philosophical texts, including a few of Plato's.(177)
Criticism
Despite Plato's prominence as a philosopher, he is not without criticism. The most famous criticism of Platonism is the Third Man Argument. Plato actually considered this objection with "large" rather than man in the Parmenides dialogue.
Many recent philosophers have diverged from what some would describe as the ontological models and moral ideals characteristic of traditional Platonism. A number of these postmodern philosophers have thus appeared to disparage Platonism from more or less informed perspectives. Friedrich Nietzsche notoriously attacked Plato's "idea of the good itself" along with many fundamentals of Christian morality, which he interpreted as "Platonism for the masses" in one of his most important works, Beyond Good and Evil (1886). Martin Heidegger argued against Plato's alleged obfuscation of Being in his incomplete tome, Being and Time (1927), and the philosopher of science Karl Popper argued in The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945) that Plato's alleged proposal for a utopian political regime in the Republic was prototypically totalitarian.
The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis criticizes Plato, stating that he was guilty of "constructing an imaginary nature by reasoning from preconceived principles and forcing reality more or less to adapt itself to this construction."(178) Dijksterhuis adds that one of the errors into which Plato had "fallen in an almost grotesque manner, consisted in an over-estimation of what unaided thought, i.e. without recourse to experience, could achieve in the field of natural science."(179)
Legacy
In the arts
Plato's Academy mosaic was created in the villa of T. Siminius Stephanus in Pompeii, around 100 BC to 100 CE. The School of Athens fresco by Raphael features Plato also as a central figure. The Nuremberg Chronicle depicts Plato and other as anachronistic schoolmen.
In philosophy
Plato's thought is often compared with that of his most famous student, Aristotle, whose reputation during the Western Middle Ages so completely eclipsed that of Plato that the Scholastic philosophers referred to Aristotle as "the Philosopher". However, in the Byzantine Empire, the study of Plato continued.
The only Platonic work known to western scholarship was Timaeus, until translations were made after the fall of Constantinople, which occurred during 1453.(180)George Gemistos Plethon brought Plato's original writings from Constantinople in the century of its fall. It is believed that Plethon passed a copy of the Dialogues to Cosimo de' Medici when in 1438 the Council of Ferrara, called to unify the Greek and Latin Churches, was adjourned to Florence, where Plethon then lectured on the relation and differences of Plato and Aristotle, and fired Cosimo with his enthusiasm; Cosimo would supply Marsilio Ficino with Plato's text for translation to Latin. During the early Islamic era, Persian and Arab scholars translated much of Plato into Arabic and wrote commentaries and interpretations on Plato's, Aristotle's and other Platonist philosophers' works (see Al-Farabi, Avicenna, Averroes, Hunayn ibn Ishaq). Many of these comments on Plato were translated from Arabic into Latin and as such influenced Medieval scholastic philosophers.(182)
During the Renaissance, with the general resurgence of interest in classical civilization, knowledge of Plato's philosophy would become widespread again in the West. Many of the greatest early modern scientists and artists who broke with Scholasticism and fostered the flowering of the Renaissance, with the support of the Plato-inspired Lorenzo (grandson of Cosimo), saw Plato's philosophy as the basis for progress in the arts and sciences. His political views, too, were well-received: the vision of wise philosopher-kings of the Republic matched the views set out in works such as Machiavelli's The Prince. More problematic was Plato's belief in metempsychosis as well as his ethical views (on polyamory and euthanasia in particular), which did not match those of Christianity. It was Plethon's student Bessarion who reconciled Plato with Christian theology, arguing that Plato's views were only ideals, unattainable due to the fall of man.(183) The Cambridge Platonists were around in the 17th century.
By the 19th century, Plato's reputation was restored, and at least on par with Aristotle's. Notable Western philosophers have continued to draw upon Plato's work since that time. Plato's influence has been especially strong in mathematics and the sciences. Plato's resurgence further inspired some of the greatest advances in logic since Aristotle, primarily through Gottlob Frege and his followers Kurt Gödel, Alonzo Church, and Alfred Tarski. Albert Einstein suggested that the scientist who takes philosophy seriously would have to avoid systematization and take on many different roles, and possibly appear as a Platonist or Pythagorean, in that such a one would have "the viewpoint of logical simplicity as an indispensable and effective tool of his research."
The political philosopher and professor Leo Strauss is considered by some as the prime thinker involved in the recovery of Platonic thought in its more political, and less metaphysical, form. Strauss' political approach was in part inspired by the appropriation of Plato and Aristotle by medieval Jewish and Islamic political philosophers, especially Maimonides and Al-Farabi, as opposed to the Christian metaphysical tradition that developed from Neoplatonism. Deeply influenced by Nietzsche and Heidegger, Strauss nonetheless rejects their condemnation of Plato and looks to the dialogues for a solution to what all three latter day thinkers acknowledge as 'the crisis of the West.'
W. V. O. Quine dubbed the problem of negative existentials "Plato's beard". Noam Chomsky dubbed the problem of knowledge Plato's problem. One author calls the definist fallacy the Socratic fallacy.
More broadly, platonism (sometimes distinguished from Plato's particular view by the lowercase) refers to the view that there are many abstract objects. Still to this day, platonists take number and the truths of mathematics as the best support in favor of this view. Most mathematicians think, like platonists, that numbers and the truths of mathematics are perceived by reason rather than the senses yet exist independently of minds and people, that is to say, they are discovered rather than invented.
Contemporary platonism is also more open to the idea of there being infinitely many abstract objects, as numbers or propositions might qualify as abstract objects, while ancient Platonism seemed to resist this view, possibly because of the need to overcome the problem of "the One and the Many". Thus e. g. in the Parmenides dialogue, Plato denies there are Forms for more mundane things like hair and mud. However, he repeatedly does support the idea that there are Forms of artifacts, e. g. the Form of Bed. Contemporary platonism also tends to view abstract objects as unable to cause anything, but it's unclear whether the ancient Platonists felt this way.
See also
Notes
- ^ "…the subject of philosophy, as it is often conceived—a rigorous and systematic examination of ethical, political, metaphysical, and epistemological issues, armed with a distinctive method—can be called his invention."(3)
- ^ "Though influenced primarily by Socrates, to the extent that Socrates is usually the main character in many of Plato's writings, he was also influenced by Heraclitus, Parmenides, and the Pythagoreans"(6)
- ^ Diogenes Laërtius mentions that Plato "was born, according to some writers, in Aegina in the house of Phidiades the son of Thales". Diogenes mentions as one of his sources the Universal History of Favorinus. According to Favorinus, Ariston, Plato's family, and his family were sent by Athens to settle as cleruchs (colonists retaining their Athenian citizenship), on the island of Aegina, from which they were expelled by the Spartans after Plato's birth there.(13) Nails points out, however, that there is no record of any Spartan expulsion of Athenians from Aegina between 431–411 BC. On the other hand, at the Peace of Nicias, Aegina was silently left under Athens' control, and it was not until the summer of 411 that the Spartans overran the island.(15) Therefore, Nails concludes that "perhaps Ariston was a cleruch, perhaps he went to Aegina in 431, and perhaps Plato was born on Aegina, but none of this enables a precise dating of Ariston's death (or Plato's birth). Aegina is regarded as Plato's place of birth by the Suda as well.(16)
- ^ Apollodorus of Athens said Plato was born on the seventh day of the month Thargelion; according to this tradition the god Apollo was born this day.(17)Renaissance Platonists celebrated Plato's birth on November 7.Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff estimates that Plato was born when Diotimos was archon eponymous, namely between July 29, 428 BC and July 24, 427 BC. Greek philologist Ioannis Kalitsounakis believes that he was born on May 26 or 27, 427 BC.(20)(21)
- ^ According to James Adam, some have held that "Glaucon and Adeimantus were uncles of Plato, but Zeller decides for the usual view that they were brothers."(28)
- ^ Fra aristos et kleos
- ^ A scroll by Philodemus analyzed in 2019 may suggest that Plato was enslaved earlier than was previously believed.(55)
- ^ Not to be confused with Anniceris the Cyrenaic philosopher.
- ^ He regarded "logistic" as appropriate for business men and men of war who "must learn the art of numbers or he will not know how to array his troops," while "arithmetic" was appropriate for philosophers "because he has to arise out of the sea of change and lay hold of true being."(67)
- ^ Plotinus describes this in the last part of his final Ennead (VI, 9) entitled On the Good, or the One (Περὶ τἀγαθοῦ ἢ τοῦ ἑνός). Jens Halfwassen states in Der Aufstieg zum Einen' (2006) that "Plotinus' ontology—which should be called Plotinus' henology—is a rather accurate philosophical renewal and continuation of Plato's unwritten doctrine, i.e. the doctrine rediscovered by Krämer and Gaiser."
- ^ In one of his letters (Epistolae 1612) Ficino writes: "The main goal of the divine Plato … is to show one principle of things, which he called the One (τὸ ἕν)", cf. Montoriola 1926, p. 147.
- ^ For a brief description of the problem see for example Gaiser 1980. A more detailed analysis is given by Krämer 1990. Another description is by Reale 1997 and Reale 1990. A thorough analysis of the consequences of such an approach is given by Szlezak 1999. Another supporter of this interpretation is the German philosopher Karl Albert, cf. Albert 1980 or Albert 1996. Hans-Georg Gadamer is also sympathetic towards it, cf. Grondin 2010 and Gadamer 1980. Gadamer's final position on the subject is stated in Gadamer 1997.
- ^ Some use the term allegory instead of myth. This is in accordance with the practice in the specialized literature, in which it is common to find that the terms allegory and myth are used as synonyms. Nevertheless, there is a trend among modern scholars to use the term myth and avoid the term allegory, as it is considered more appropriate to modern interpretation of Plato's writings. One of the first to initiate this trend was the Oxford University professor John Alexander Stewart, in his work The Myths of Plato.
- ^ "The time is not long after the death of Socrates; for the Pythagoreans (Echecrates & co.) have not heard any details yet".(130)
referanser
- ^ Ragland-Sullivan, Ellie (Fall 1989). "Plato's Symposium and the Lacanian Theory of Transference: Or, What Is Love?". The South Atlantic Quarterly. Duke University Press. 88: 740.
- ^ Kraut, Richard (11 September 2013). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). "Plato". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
- ^ Michel Foucault, The Hermeneutics of the Subject
- ^ a b Brickhouse & Smith.
- ^ Cooper, John M.; Hutchinson, D.S., eds. (1997): "Introduction".
- ^ Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, III
• Nails 2002, p. 53
• Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 46 - ^ Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, I
- ^ a b Guthrie 1986, p. 10
• Taylor 2001, p. xiv
• Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 47 - ^ Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, 1
• Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, I
• "Plato". Suda. - ^ Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, III
- ^ Thucydides, 5.18
• Thucydides, 8.92 - ^ a b c "Plato". Suda.
- ^ a b c Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, II
- ^ a b Plato at the Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ a b "Plato". Encyclopaedic Dictionary The Helios Volume V (in Greek). 1952.
- ^ Cicero, De Divinatione, I, 36
- ^ Plato, Republic 368a
• Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 47 - ^ "Plato, Republic, Book 2, page 368". www.perseus.tufts.edu.
- ^ Xenophon, Memorabilia, 3.6.1
- ^ Nails 2002, p. 53
• Taylor 2001, p. xiv - ^ Plato, Charmides 158a
• Nails 2002, pp. 228–229 - ^ Plato, Charmides 158a
• Plutarch, Pericles, IV - ^ Plato, Gorgias 481d and Gorgias 513b
• Aristophanes, Wasps, 97 - ^ Plato, Parmenides 126c
- ^ a b Sedley, David, Plato's Cratylus, Cambridge University Press 2003, pp. 21–22.
- ^ Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, IV
- ^ Notopoulos 1939, p. 135
- ^ Seneca, Epistulae, VI 58:29-30; translation by Robert Mott Gummere
- ^ a b see Tarán 1981, p. 226.
- ^ Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, 2
- ^ Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, IV
• Smith 1870, p. 393 - ^ Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, V
- ^ Aristotle, Metaphysics, 1.987a
- ^ Craig, Edward, ed. (1998). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge. p. 432. ISBN 978-0-415-07310-3.
- ^ Kennedy, Merrit (October 4, 2019). "Ancient Greek Scroll's Hidden Contents Revealed Through Infrared Imaging". NPR.org. Retrieved October 5, 2019.
- ^ Diogenes Laërtius, Book iii, 20
- ^ Seneca, Epistulae, VI, 58, 31: natali suo decessit et annum umum atque octogensimum.
- ^ Metaphysics, 1.6.1 (987a)
- ^ Tusc. Disput. 1.17.39.
- ^ a b c McFarlane, Thomas J. "Plato's Parmenides". Integralscience. Retrieved 12 February 2017.
- ^ George Karamanolis (2013). "Numenius". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
- ^ R.M. Hare, Plato in C.C.W. Taylor, R.M. Hare and Jonathan Barnes, Greek Philosophers, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999 (1982), 103–189, here 117–119.
- ^ Russell, Bertrand (1991). History of Western Philosophy. Routledge. pp. 120–124. ISBN 978-0-415-07854-2.
- ^ Boyer 1991, p. 86
- ^ a b Large, William. "Heraclitus". Arasite. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
- ^ John Palmer. "Parmenides". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- ^ Second Letter 341c
- ^ Metaphysics 987b1–11
- ^ McPherran, M.L. (1998). The Religion of Socrates. Penn State Press. p. 268.
- ^ "The Eleusinian Mysteries: The Rites of Demeter". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2019-04-27.
- ^ Plato, Timaeus 44d & Timaeus 70
- ^ Theaetetus 156a
- ^ Theaetetus 201c–d
- ^ Meno 97d–98a
- ^ Theaetetus 210a–b
- ^ Republic 473c–d
- ^ Republic 475c
- ^ Plato, Republic 488
- ^ Republic 550b
- ^ Republic 554a
- ^ Republic 561a–b
- ^ Republic 571a
- ^ Phaedrus (265a–c)
- ^ Rodriguez-Grandjean 1998.
- ^ Reale 1990. Cf. p. 14 and onwards.
- ^ Krämer 1990. Cf. pp. 38–47.
- ^ Physics 209b
- ^ Phaedrus 276c
- ^ Seventh Letter 344c
- ^ Seventh Letter 341c
- ^ Seventh Letter 344d
- ^ Elementa harmonica II, 30–31; quoted in Gaiser 1980, p. 5.
- ^ a b Metaphysics 987b
- ^ Apology 33d–34a
- ^ Apology38b
- ^ Phaedo 59b
- ^ Theaetetus 210d
- ^ Euthyphro 2a–b
- ^ Meno 94e–95a
- ^ Gorgias 521e–522a
- ^ Republic 7.517e
- ^ Apology 19b, c
- ^ Chappel, Timothy. "Mythos and Logos in Plato". Open University. Retrieved 20 August 2017.
- ^ Edelstein, Ludwig (October 1949). "The Function of the Myth in Plato's Philosophy". Journal of the History of Ideas. X (4): 463–481.
- ^ Partenie, Catalin. "Plato's Myths". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 29 October 2017.
- ^ "Plato's The Allegory of the Cave: Meaning and Interpretation". Bachelor and Master. Retrieved February 25, 2017.
- ^ Hartz, Louis. 1984. A Synthesis of World History. Zurich: Humanity Press
- ^ Lysis 213a
- ^ Republic 3.403b
- ^ Burnet 1911, p. 5
- ^ Theaetetus 142c–143b
- ^ Theaetetus 143c
- ^ CDC Reeve (Delta Kappa Epsilon Distinguished Professor of Philosophy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill), A Plato Reader: Eight Essential Dialogues (p. vi), Hackett Publishing, 2012 ISBN 1-60384-917-3.
- ^ Robin Barrow (Professor of Philosophy of Education at Simon Fraser University, Canada and Fellow of The Royal Society of Canada), Plato: Appendix 2: Notes on the authenticity and Groupings of Plato's works, Bloomsbury Publishing, 2014 ISBN 1-4725-0485-2.
- ^ Platonic Writings/Platonic Readings (page x) (edited by CL Griswold Jr), Penn State Press, 2010 ISBN 0-271-04481-0.
- ^ JM Cooper (Stuart Professor of Philosophy, Princeton University, 1997); DS Hutchinson, Complete Works (p. xii), Hackett Publishing, 1997.
- ^ H Tarrant (Professor of Classics at the University of Newcastle, New South Wales), Plato's First Interpreters, Cornell University Press, 2000 ISBN 0-8014-3792-X.
- ^ See Guthrie 1986; Vlastos 1991; Penner 1992; Kahn 1996; Fine 1999b.
- ^ Kraut 2013; Schofield 2002; and Rowe 2006.
- ^ Aristotle, Politics 1264b24-27.
- ^ a b Brandwood 1990, p. 251.
- ^ Brandwood 1990, p. 77.
- ^ B Jowett, Menexenus: Appendix I (1st paragraph).
- ^ The extent to which scholars consider a dialogue to be authentic is noted in Cooper 1997, pp. v–vi.
- ^ Irwin 2011, pp. 64 & 74. See also Slings 1987, p. 34: "… primary MSS. together offer a text of tolerably good quality" (this is without the further corrections of other sources).
- ^ "Manuscripts – Philosophy Faculty Library". 2 March 2012. Archived from the original on 2 March 2012.
- ^ RD McKirahan, Philosophy Before Socrates: An Introduction with Texts and Commentary (2nd ed.), Hackett Publishing, 2011, p. 1 ISBN 1-60384-612-3.
- ^ RS Brumbaugh, Plato for the Modern Age (p. 199), University Press of America, 1991 ISBN 0-8191-8356-3.
- ^ J Duffy Byzantine Philosophy and Its Ancient Sources: "The lonely mission of Michael Psellos" edited by K Ierodiakonou (Oxford University Press, 2004) ISBN 0-19-926971-8.
- ^ J Hankins, Plato in the Italian Renaissance Vol. 1 (p. 300), Brill, 1990 ISBN 90-04-09161-0.
- ^ Platonis opera quae extant omnia edidit Henricus Stephanus, Genevae, 1578.
- ^ Oxford Classical Texts – Classical Studies & Ancient History Series. Oxford University Press
- ^ Cambridge Greek and Latin Classics – Series. Cambridge University Press
- ^ Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries. Cambridge University Press
- ^ Complete Works – Philosophy
- ^ Clarendon Plato Series – Philosophy Series. Oxford University Press
- ^ Cornell University Press : Agora Editions
- ^ Dijksterhuis, Eduard Jan (1969). The mechanization of the world picture. Translated by C. Dikshoorn. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 69.
- ^ Dijksterjuis, Eduard Jan (1969). The mechanization of the world picture. Translated by C. Dikshoorn. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 118.
- ^ C.U. M.Smith – Brain, Mind and Consciousness in the History of Neuroscience (page 1) Springer Science & Business, 1 Jan 2014, 374 pages, Volume 6 of History, philosophy and theory of the life sciences SpringerLink : Bücher ISBN 94-017-8774-3 (Retrieved 2015-06-27)
- ^ See Burrell 1998 and Hasse 2002, pp. 33–45.
- ^ Harris, Jonathan (2002). "Byzantines in Renaissance Italy". ORB: The Online Reference Book for Medieval Studies. College of Staten Island, City University of New York. Archived from the original on 30 September 2003. Retrieved 9 February 2015.
Works cited
Primary sources (Greek and Roman)
- Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, I. See original text in Latin Library.
- Aristophanes, The Wasps. See original text in Perseus program.
- Aristotle, Metaphysics. See original text in Perseus program.
- Cicero, De Divinatione, I. See original text in Latin library.
Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 1:3. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.
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- Plutarch (1683) (written in the late 1st century). . Lives. Translated by Dryden, John – via Wikisource. See original text in Perseus program.
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Further reading
- Alican, Necip Fikri (2012). Rethinking Plato: A Cartesian Quest for the Real Plato. Amsterdam and New York: Editions Rodopi B.V. ISBN 978-90-420-3537-9.
- Allen, R.E. (1965). Studies in Plato's Metaphysics II. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-7100-3626-4
- Ambuel, David (2007). Image and Paradigm in Plato's Sophist. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-04-9
- Anderson, Mark; Osborn, Ginger (2009). Approaching Plato: A Guide to the Early and Middle Dialogues (PDF). Nashville: Belmont University.
- Arieti, James A. Interpreting Plato: The Dialogues as Drama, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-8476-7662-5
- Bakalis, Nikolaos (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing ISBN 1-4120-4843-5
- Barrow, Robin (2007). Plato: Continuum Library of Educational Thought. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-8408-6.
- Cadame, Claude (1999). Indigenous and Modern Perspectives on Tribal Initiation Rites: Education According to Plato, pp. 278–312, in Padilla, Mark William (editor), "Rites of Passage in Ancient Greece: Literature, Religion, Society", Bucknell University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8387-5418-X
- Cooper, John M.; Hutchinson, D.S., eds. (1997). Plato: Complete Works. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-87220-349-5.
- Corlett, J. Angelo (2005). Interpreting Plato's Dialogues. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-02-5
- Durant, Will (1926). The Story of Philosophy. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-69500-2.
- Derrida, Jacques (1972). La dissémination, Paris: Seuil. (esp. cap.: La Pharmacie de Platon, 69–199) ISBN 2-02-001958-2
- Field, G.C. (1969). The Philosophy of Plato (2nd ed. with an appendix by Cross, R.C. ed.). London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-888040-0.
- Fine, Gail (2000). Plato 1: Metaphysics and Epistemology Oxford University Press, US, ISBN 0-19-875206-7
- Finley, M.I. (1969). Aspects of antiquity: Discoveries and Controversies The Viking Press, Inc., US
- Garvey, James (2006). Twenty Greatest Philosophy Books. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-9053-7.
- Guthrie, W.K.C. (1986). A History of Greek Philosophy (Plato – The Man & His Dialogues – Earlier Period), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-31101-2
- Guthrie, W.K.C. (1986). A History of Greek Philosophy (Later Plato & the Academy) Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-31102-0
- Havelock, Eric (2005). Preface to Plato (History of the Greek Mind), Belknap Press, ISBN 0-674-69906-8
- Hamilton, Edith; Cairns, Huntington, eds. (1961). The Collected Dialogues of Plato, Including the Letters. Princeton Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-691-09718-3.
- Harvard University Press publishes the hardbound series Loeb Classical Library, containing Plato's works in Greek, with English translations on facing pages.
- Irvine, Andrew David (2008). Socrates on Trial: A play based on Aristophanes' Clouds and Plato's Apology, Crito, and Phaedo, adapted for modern performance. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.ISBN 978-0-8020-9783-5, 978-0-8020-9538-1
- Hermann, Arnold (2010). Plato's Parmenides: Text, Translation & Introductory Essay, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-71-1
- Irwin, Terence (1995). Plato's Ethics, Oxford University Press, US, ISBN 0-19-508645-7
- Jackson, Roy (2001). Plato: A Beginner's Guide. London: Hoder & Stroughton. ISBN 978-0-340-80385-1.
- Jowett, Benjamin (1892). (The Dialogues of Plato. Translated into English with analyses and introductions by B. Jowett.), Oxford Clarendon Press, UK, UIN:BLL01002931898
- Kochin, Michael S. (2002). Gender and Rhetoric in Plato's Political Thought. Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80852-1.
- Kraut, Richard, ed. (1993). The Cambridge Companion to Plato. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43610-6.
- Lilar, Suzanne (1954), Journal de l'analogiste, Paris, Éditions Julliard; Reedited 1979, Paris, Grasset. Foreword by Julien Gracq
- Lilar, Suzanne (1963), Le couple, Paris, Grasset. Translated as Aspects of Love in Western Society in 1965, with a foreword by Jonathan Griffin London, Thames and Hudson.
- Lilar, Suzanne (1967) A propos de Sartre et de l'amour , Paris, Grasset.
- Lundberg, Phillip (2005). Tallyho – The Hunt for Virtue: Beauty, Truth and Goodness Nine Dialogues by Plato: Pheadrus, Lysis, Protagoras, Charmides, Parmenides, Gorgias, Theaetetus, Meno & Sophist. Authorhouse. ISBN 978-1-4184-4977-3.
- Márquez, Xavier (2012) A Stranger's Knowledge: Statesmanship, Philosophy & Law in Plato's Statesman, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-79-7
- Melchert, Norman (2002). The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy. McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-19-517510-3.
- Miller, Mitchell (2004). The Philosopher in Plato's Statesman. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-16-2
- Mohr, Richard D. (2006). God and Forms in Plato – and other Essays in Plato's Metaphysics. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-01-8
- Mohr, Richard D. (Ed.), Sattler, Barbara M. (Ed.) (2010) One Book, The Whole Universe: Plato's Timaeus Today, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-32-2
- Moore, Edward (2007). Plato. Philosophy Insights Series. Tirril, Humanities-Ebooks. ISBN 978-1-84760-047-9
- Nightingale, Andrea Wilson. (1995). "Genres in Dialogue: Plato and the Construct of Philosophy", Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-48264-X
- Oxford University Press publishes scholarly editions of Plato's Greek texts in the Oxford Classical Texts series, and some translations in the Clarendon Plato Series.
- Patterson, Richard (Ed.), Karasmanis, Vassilis (Ed.), Hermann, Arnold (Ed.) (2013) Presocratics & Plato: Festschrift at Delphi in Honor of Charles Kahn, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-75-9
- Piechowiak, Marek (2019). Plato's Conception of Justice and the Question of Human Dignity. Peter Lang: Berlin. ISBN 978-3-631-65970-0.
- Sallis, John (1996). Being and Logos: Reading the Platonic Dialogues. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21071-5.
- Sallis, John (1999). Chorology: On Beginning in Plato's "Timaeus". Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21308-2.
- Sayre, Kenneth M. (2005). Plato's Late Ontology: A Riddle Resolved. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-09-4
- Seung, T.K. (1996). Plato Rediscovered: Human Value and Social Order. Rowman and Littlefield. ISBN 0-8476-8112-2
- Smith, William. (1867). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. University of Michigan/Online version.
- Stewart, John. (2010). Kierkegaard and the Greek World – Socrates and Plato. Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-6981-4
- Thesleff, Holger (2009). Platonic Patterns: A Collection of Studies by Holger Thesleff, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-29-2
- Thomas Taylor has translated Plato's complete works.
- Thomas Taylor (1804). The Works of Plato, viz. His Fifty-Five Dialogues and Twelve Epistles 5 vols
- Vlastos, Gregory (1981). Platonic Studies, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-10021-7
- Vlastos, Gregory (2006). Plato's Universe – with a new Introduction by Luc Brisson, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-13-1
- Zuckert, Catherine (2009). Plato's Philosophers: The Coherence of the Dialogues, The University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-99335-5
External links
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tout au long de votre trip d’apprentissage des cristaux, vous avez sans doute rencontré des mots et des phrases étranges que vous n’auriez peut-être jamais cru avoir un rapport avec les cristaux, comme le tétraèdre, l’icosaèdre et les robustes de Platon. Et tu pensais que tu n’aurais jamais besoin de ta forme après le lycée ! Alors, que sont exactement les solides de Platon ? En matière simples, il s’agit de polygones pleins ( une forme bidimensionnelle où tous les côtés et les angles sont égaux ), qui ont des faces planes et dont chaque face a la même forme et la même taille. Platon a théorisé que les composants principaux ( terre, aspect, feu et eau ) étaient directement liés aux robustes. il existe cinq solides de Platon : Tétraèdre – 4 faces ( feu ) ; Cube – 6 faces ; Octaèdre – 8 faces ; Dodécaèdre – 12 faces, et Icosaèdre – 20 faces ; Tétraèdres, qui ressemblent à une pyramide, sont associés à l’élément feu. Les cubes sont associés à la terre. Les octaèdres ressemblent à un losange et sont liés à le composant de l’air. Les icosaèdres ( composés de 20 triangles équilatéraux ) sont associés à le composant eau. Le dernier et souvent nommé le cinquième élément, l’éther, ou Akasha, a été appellé par Aristote et on dit que c’est ce qui compose le ciel. Le dernier solide de Platon, le dodécaèdre, est associé à l’élément d’éther. n















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